Visual Arts Look-Up Logo

Ancient Egyptian Art

Conventions, styles, types
Painting, sculpture, faience

Main A-Z Index

CONTENTS

Summary

During the Bronze Age, Ancient Egypt produced some of the best known ancient art in the Mediterranean basin.

For example, Ancient Egyptian Pyramids and temples were world famous, and Egyptian stonemasons led the world in cutting, carving, shaping and sculpting stone.

In addition, Egyptian painters were noted for their fresco murals and, later, for their extraordinary Fayum Mummy Portraits, while the country's master craftsmen achieved international fame for their unique Egyptian faience.

This artistic success was matched by cultural achievements in the field of writing systems (hieroglyphics), mathematics and medicine, as well as irrigation and agricultural production.

Not surprisingly, Egypt's art and architecture was widely copied, not least by the Ancient Greeks, who relied heavily upon Egyptian expertise in stoneworking.

What Made Egyptian Civilization So Successful?

Answer: To begin with, Ancient Egypt benefited from an abundance of food, thanks to the fertile floodplains of the Nile, and relatively secure borders of sand and sea.

In addition, the country had a relatively efficient, governing bureaucracy, ruled by a god-king (pharaoh), who was universally worshipped as a divine ruler.

All this resulted in fewer invasions and large tax receipts. And because of the country's strong religious beliefs, there was a constant demand for religious art - notably temples - and therefore a strong tradition of architectural design and artistic achievement.

On the other hand, because of the general stability of Egyptian society, and its strict adherence to religious norms, its art and culture was subject to a series of rigid rules, which favoured order and form over creativity and artistic expression.

One might also point out that an abundance of limestone, coupled with the presence of a convenient river for transport, enabled Egyptian civilization to create megalithic architecture on a grand scale.

Mesopotamian culture was less fortunate in its resources. As a result, almost all Mesopotamian architectural structures have crumbled or vanished.

Back to top

Chronology

Egyptian culture evolved over three millennia, a period commonly divided as follows:

Note: The three 'intermediate periods', which account for roughly 725 years, were characterized by civil unrest, disorganization, or partial occupation.

Egyptian Artists and Craftsmen

Ancient Egyptian artists were nothing like today's individualists. They were paid artisans who usually worked as part of a team.

Even master craftsmen were anonymous. The credit for any building or artwork, was reserved for the patron who had commissioned it.

As a result, with the odd exception, like Imhotep - the architect of King Djoser's Step Pyramid at Saqqara - the names of individual artists will never be known.

Back to top

Painting Conventions in Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egyptian art is renowned for its distinctive style and adherence to conventions that remained remarkably consistent (rigid) for over 3,000 years. These immutable rules were intended to assert, propagandize and preserve the religious and social values of the day.

Depiction of Figures

A primary convention in ancient Egyptian paintings was the manner in which human figures were depicted.

The figures were often depicted in a composite view, where different body parts were shown from their most recognizable angles.

Thus, heads were always portrayed in profile, while torsos were shown from a frontal view.

Legs, in contrast, were again depicted in profile.

This particular assemblage, while seemingly unnatural by modern standards, ensured that each body part was instantly recognizable and distinct.

The hierarchical scale was another vital element in Egyptian art. Figures of greater social or political importance, like pharaohs or gods, were often depicted larger than other figures, regardless of their actual physical size.

This not only provided a clear visual representation of hierarchy but also reinforced the societal norms of ancient Egypt.

Different People, Different Colours

The specific colour palette employed to depict individuals was not arbitrary; it was determined by their societal rank and roles.

Kings and Nobles

Blue: Representing divinity and the heavens, blue was frequently used in the crowns and headdresses of pharaohs, emphasizing their divine right to rule.

Gold: Signifying eternity and the imperishability of the sun, gold was reserved for the skin of gods and the faces of pharaohs in many murals, accentuating their divine nature.

Priests

White: Priests were often adorned in white garments, a colour synonymous with purity, sacredness, and ritual cleanliness. Their association with religious rites necessitated an image of moral and spiritual impeccability.

Men

Reddish-brown: The skin of ordinary Egyptian men was typically depicted in a reddish-brown hue, made from a mix of red and yellow ochre. This colour choice likely mirrored the sun-tanned skin from labouring outdoors, contrasting with the lighter skin of women, who were more often portrayed indoors.

Women

Light Yellow or Cream: The skin of Egyptian women, especially those from the upper echelons of society, was painted in light yellow or cream. This was a reflection of their indoor lifestyle and societal norms that associated lighter skin with a privileged life away from manual labour.

Servants and Slaves

Darker shades: Servants and slaves were often depicted with darker skin tones, denoting their exposure to the sun due to manual outdoor work. This distinction reinforced societal hierarchies and the division of labour.

Compare: Stone Age Colour Palette.

General Colour Symbolism

The painting conventions followed by Egyptians were not mere stylistic choices but were deeply rooted in their society's religious beliefs, socio-political hierarchy, and cosmology.

Every colour was a deliberate choice, aimed at conveying specific messages about the world they lived in and their understanding of the cosmos.

Back to top

Sculpture Conventions in Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egyptian culture produced some of the world's most iconic sculptures. These works were not simply decorative pieces: they were infused with symbolism and adhered to strict conventions, ensuring continuity and consistency across the dynasties.

Portrayal of Figures

The depiction of figures in ancient Egyptian sculpture was governed by rigid conventions that emphasized the significance of order, proportion, and hierarchy.

Composite View

Mirroring the conventions in painting, sculptures also adhered to the composite perspective.

This meant that while heads were often depicted in profile, torsos were presented frontally, and legs were again shown in profile, with feet pointing outward.

This approach, although not anatomically accurate, presented each body part in its most recognizable form.

Hierarchical Proportions

Scale and proportion in Egyptian sculptures were symbolic rather than realistic.

A pharaoh or deity would be represented as larger than other figures, irrespective of their actual size.

In family statues, the head of the family, typically the male, would be sculpted larger than his wife or children, signifying his paramount status.

Rigidity and Posture

Figures were typically depicted in a rigid, upright posture with clenched fists and feet close together. This formality in stance emphasized stability, permanence, and reverence.

The exception to this convention can be seen in the portrayal of servants or animals in action, where some movement might be depicted.

Facial Expressions

Faces in ancient Egyptian sculptures were generally calm and serene, devoid of extreme emotions. This neutrality was intentional, symbolizing timeless dignity and the eternal nature of the afterlife.

Wall Reliefs

Many Egyptian "sculptures" were in the form of wall reliefs. In these, the conventions of hierarchical scale were strictly adhered to, with important figures like pharaohs and gods being depicted much larger than common people or enemies.

Symbolic Attributes

Many sculptures had figures holding or adorned with specific symbols, denoting their rank, role, or divine association. For example, the was-sceptre represented power and dominion.

As we can see, the conventions of sculpture in ancient Egypt were designed to convey not just the physical likeness of entities but their intrinsic spiritual, societal, and symbolic significance.

Back to top

Egyptian Art and The Afterlife

Ancient Egypt had an obsession with the afterlife. Central to this preoccupation was the journey through the underworld, a journey fraught with challenges but ultimately leading to immortality.

This fervent belief in the afterlife shaped Egyptian art in many different ways.

For example, Egyptians perceived the tomb not merely as a resting place for the deceased but as an eternal home.

This ideology is evident in the elaborate wall paintings within the tombs, depicting daily life, including farming, hunting, and feasting scenes. The intention was to provide the deceased with all the comforts and activities they enjoyed in their earthly life, ensuring their continuation in the hereafter.

Intricately designed amulets and objects often accompanied the mummy. These weren’t mere ornaments; each had a symbolic role to play.

The 'ankh', for instance, was a common artistic motif, symbolizing eternal life. The 'djed' pillar, symbolizing stability and resurrection, was another artistic representation associated with the god Osiris and the promise of rebirth.

The 'Book of the Dead', a loose collection of magical spells and incantations - dating to around 1550 BC - was an artistic masterpiece, often illustrated on papyrus scrolls and placed within tombs.

Its purpose was to guide the deceased through the trials of the underworld (duat), ensuring their successful resurrection in the Field of Reeds, a heavenly paradise.

Scenes depicting the weighing of the heart ceremony, overseen by the god Anubis (and the devourer Ammut), were common artistic representations of this perilous journey.

Some people commissioned their own versions of the Book of the Dead, perhaps selecting spells they thought most vital in their own progression to the afterlife.

The Book of the Dead was usually written in hieroglyphic or hieratic script on a papyrus scroll, and illustrated with stories about the journey through the underworld.

Back to top

The Amarna Revolution

The Amarna period, named after its archaeological site, Tel el-Amarna, marks the most radical period in the history of Ancient Egyptian art.

This era, presided over by Pharaoh Amenhotep IV (r.1353–36 BC) (he later renamed himself Akhenaten), witnessed a religious revolution which had a huge (if temporary) effect on Egyptian art.

For fifteen centuries, Ancient Egyptians had worshiped an extensive family of deities, each of which had its own 'cult'. These cults had their own temples, shrines and priests.

The key activity of each cult was the veneration of images of their deity, within the dark confines of their temples.

All cults encouraged their members to make offerings of valuables, food and other items, but major cults - like the cult of Amun-Ra - received extra state support.

When Amenhotep IV came to power, the main deity was Amun-Ra - a combination of Amun (god of the air) and Ra (the sun god). The Amun-Ra ran the massive Precinct of Amun-Ra temple at Thebes.

Another, separate sun god was Aten, who was often depicted as a sun disc with emanating rays ending in hands, bestowing life and blessings.

In about 1348 BC, Akhenaten suddenly made Aten the supreme god, supplanting Amun-Ra, although continued worship of the other traditional gods was still allowed.

Then, four years later, in 1344 BC, he declared Aten to be the only God of Egypt and banned the worship of all other gods. This was a revolutionary departure from centuries of Egyptian tradition, and disrupted religious life throughout Ancient Egypt.

Akhenaten also moved the royal court from Thebes to Akhetaten - what is now known as Amarna. This became the centre of a revolutionary new style of Egyptian art, known as the 'Amarna Style', which deviated from the long-standing conventions of Egyptian artistic representation.

Atenism and the Amarna style transformed the established artistic conventions, and showcased an intriguing mix of realism, exaggeration, and intimacy.

Humanization of the Royal Family

Contrary to the idealized and timeless depictions of pharaohs produced during previous dynasties, the Amarna style featured a more naturalistic, if sometimes exaggerated idiom.

Akhenaten himself was portrayed with distinct and unusual features, such as an elongated face, slanted eyes, pronounced lips, a slender neck, and an androgynous body with wide hips and a noticeable belly.

This deviation could symbolize the pharaoh's unique connection with the Aten or perhaps a more realistic portrayal, moving away from the idealistic standards of the past.

Intimate Royal Portrayals

One of the standout features of the Amarna style was the depiction of the royal family in intimate and domestic settings.

Artworks frequently illustrated Akhenaten and his primary queen, Nefertiti, playing with their children or partaking in daily activities, presenting a more human and approachable side to the monarchy.

Changes in Proportions and Scale

The time-tested conventions of proportionality in Egyptian art, where figures were represented based on hierarchical status, were altered during the Amarna period.

While not entirely egalitarian, there was a noticeable shift towards portraying figures in a more proportionate manner, emphasizing naturalism over symbolic hierarchy.

Artistic Detail Encouraged

There was a significant emphasis on detail in Amarna art. Nature, flora, and fauna were rendered with meticulous care, highlighting the period's interest in the world which (after all) was directly nurtured by Aten's 'sunshine'.

Decline and Legacy

As many predicted, Atenism did not last long after the death of Akhenaten.

His son and successor Pharaoh Tutankhaten, no doubt pressurized by powerful vested interests, quickly dropped the Aten from his name, and changed it to Tutankhamun, and Egypt soon reverted to its polytheistic traditions, with Amun-Ra reinstated as the supreme deity.

However, the Amarna style's fleeting existence left an indelible mark, reflecting the potential for change and innovation even in civilizations as ancient and rooted in tradition as Egypt.

Back to top

Ancient Egyptian Painting

Painting in Ancient Egypt followed the same pattern of development as relief sculpture. Indeed, the two media were often combined. The big difference between them is durability. Far less Ancient Egyptian painting has survived, than sculptural reliefs.

The earliest examples of painting occur in the prehistoric period, notably patterns and scenes on ancient pottery.

Later, we find traces of brightly coloured painted patterns on the walls of royal tombs of the first dynasty (c.3200 BC), as well as on mats and woven hangings on the walls of large houses.

Some of the finest examples were found on the sides of the rectangular wooden coffins recovered from the tombs of high officials of the Middle Kingdom, at Beni Hasan and elsewhere, dating to 2,000-1800 BC.

The earliest paintings in the unmistakable Egyptian style date from the third and fourth dynasties. The most famous is probably the painted scene from the tomb of Itet (Atet), wife of Nefermaat - eldest son of Pharaoh Sneferu - at Meidum, c.2,550 BC.

Known as the 'Meidum Geese', it is part of a large scene of marsh fowls. Executed in painted plaster, it shows six geese (greylag, greater white-fronted and red-breasted) standing among clumps of stylized vegetation. However, the markings are carefully defined, and the colours are natural and subtle.

Paint was used to decorate limestone reliefs throughout the Old Kingdom, but during the sixth dynasty painted scenes began to supersede relief sculpture in private tombs because they were cheaper, although their impact was just as effective.

Painted Coffins

During the Middle Kingdom, the rectangular wooden coffins used for nobles and high officials, were typically painted with meticulous care, transforming them into real homes for the spirits of the dead.

Their exteriors were inscribed with the names and titles of their occupants, as well as prayers for the protection of various deities.

The remaining surface area was decorated with brightly painted panels, featuring fake windows and doors.

There was always a false opening at the head end of the coffin, through which the deceased's ba would be able to enter and leave as it pleased.

The interior surfaces sometimes featured images of the offerings made to the dead. A regular central feature was an offering table heaped with bread, meat, and vegetables.

Images of personal possessions, such as weapons, jewellery, stoneware and items of clothing, might also be depicted.

These coffins were usually placed in small burial chambers, inside rock tombs located in Upper Egypt, where the rock surface was too rough or flaky for painting.

However, some isolated fragments of mural paintings have survived in these tombs, mostly showing scenes of hunting or daily farm work, as well scenes of men wrestling or boys playing games.

A delicate marsh scene from a tomb at Beni Hasan, dated to 1,800 BC, depicts a group of five birds in an acacia tree - three shrikes, a hoopoe, and a redstart.

New Kingdom Tomb Painting

Tomb painting really boomed during the New Kingdom, especially in the tombs of the great necropolis near Thebes.

Here the limestone rock was generally too crumbly for relief carving, but usually its surface could be plastered to provide a base for painting.

A good example is the mural painting recovered from the tomb of the grain accountant Nebamun who lived in Thebes around 1325 BC.

The painting depicted a banquet. The noble guests are depicted sitting in formal rows, according to rank, in line with traditional painting conventions.

However, servants and entertainers could be depicted more freely. So the scene shows a pair of naked female dancers entertaining the guests, while a flute player looks out from the painting, her hair seemingly swaying to the music.

Two musicians are depicted almost full-face - an extremely rare event - while the lively atmosphere is conveyed by clapping hands, and feet.

Other pictures in Nebamun's tomb, show the food and drink he assumed he would need for the afterlife.

Another example is the Tomb of Nefertari (c.1250 BC), the first of the Great Royal Wives (or principal wives) of Ramesses the Great.

Located in the Valley of the Queens, the walls of this tomb are adorned with intricate frescoes depicting Nefertari's journey through the afterlife, guided by various deities.

Fresco murals not only appeared on the walls of New Kingdom tombs, but also brightened up the palaces and houses of the living.

Paintings of wetlands along the Nile, complete with marsh reeds, birds, and animals, have been found throughout the palaces at Amarna and elsewhere.

Egyptian Frescoes: Summary

The art of fresco painting was constantly evolving during the dynastic period.

Early frescoes from the Old Kingdom were somewhat rigid and formulaic, while Middle Kingdom frescoes introduced a new level of expressiveness and detail.

The New Kingdom, especially during the Amarna period, witnessed brief but important changes in artistic conventions, but soon reverted to type, albeit with enhanced dynamism.

After the nineteenth dynasty (the Ramessid dynasty) from about 1189 BC onwards, the quality of frescoes steadily declined.

Please note that, contrary to popular perception, ancient Egyptian murals were not true frescoes in the classical sense.

Instead of applying pigment on wet plaster (buon fresco), Egyptians often employed a technique known as secco, where paint was applied on dry plaster. This method allowed for greater longevity, especially in the arid Egyptian climate.

Although fresco standards fell, the quality of small scale paintings on furniture, papyrus, and wooden coffins, remained extremely high into the Ptolemaic period and beyond, despite an abundance of low-quality mass-produced work.

Fayum Mummy Portraits

Ancient Egyptian 'Mummy portraits', commonly called Fayum mummy portraits, are a form of exceptionally life-like portraiture, painted on wooden boards attached to upper class mummies.

Primarily associated with the Greco-Roman period in Egyptian art, they date to between 50 BC and 250 AD, when Egyptian painting conventions were far more liberal.

This is easily seen in the individual features and personalities of the subjects, which are more closely aligned with Greco-Roman portraiture, rather than any Egyptian idiom.

That said, the portraits were placed over the mummy's face, and secured into the wrappings, in the hope that the individual would be recognized in the afterlife. So Egyptian influence was still present.

What's more, while the portraits are executed in a very life-like style, they continue to observe traditional conventions.

Thus, males, for example, are depicted in their prime, regardless of their actual age at death, while females are generally shown with fashionable hairstyles and jewellery.

Note also, that the term 'Fayum portrait' is stylistic rather than geographic, as Fayum portaits have been found across Egypt, even though they are most common in the Faiyum Basin.

Two painting techniques were used in Fayum portraiture: encaustic and tempera.

The encaustic paintings provide a striking contrast between vivid, rich colours, and an overall 'Impressionistic' effect.

The tempera paintings produce chalkier colours, and a more subtle gradation of colour tones, which results in a more restrained work.

Some mummy portraits also incorporate gold leaf to enhance jewellery and wreaths.

Famous Mummy Portraits

Back to top

Ancient Egyptian Sculpture

Ancient Egyptian sculpture was closely related to Egyptian architecture and largely involved the temple and the tomb. There were five main types of sculpture or carving:

Reliefs and statues were created mostly (but not solely) for tombs; figurines were created for temples and also for palaces, houses and private tombs; while colossal works were only made for special projects at temples and royal tombs.

Sculptural Expertise and Materials

Long before the arrival of the Romans, Ancient Egyptian stonemasons led the world in cutting, shaping and carving stones for pyramids and other stone structures.

Their experience and skill-set also found a ready use in the production of stone sculpture.

Materials were also in plentiful supply. The high ground on both sides of the Nile, as far south as Edfou, provided abundant limestone, while beyond Edfou there were extensive quarries of sandstone, both materials being used for a range of sculpture.

Near the first cataract one can still see the quarries from which builders and sculptors obtained red granite, which was used in the creation of obelisks and colossal statues, as well as sarcophagi.

Further south was the famous diorite quarry at Gebel el-Asr.

Meanwhile, Alabaster was obtained from quarries at Alabastron, while from the mountains of the Arabian and the Sinai deserts came the basalt and more diorite, as well as the red porphyry prized by the Greeks and Romans.

Nile mud was also widely baked, glazed and used in terracotta sculptures.

Ancient Egyptian sculptors also mastered the use of other imported materials, like iron, gold, silver and ivory.

Ivory, for example, was widely used in chryselephantine sculpture (a mix of ivory and gold).

Wood was also used, though in far smaller quantities. In the valley of the Nile grew acacia and the sycamore trees, while ebony was imported from equatorial Africa.

Relief Sculpture

Three main types of relief sculpture were employed in pharaonic tomb complexes:

Common themes depicted in royal tombs and burial chambers included:

Famous Royal Reliefs

For a comparison with Neo-Assyrian military campaign reliefs at Nineveh and Nimrud, see: Assyrian Art (2600-609 BC).

Tombs of High Officials

Ancient Egyptian tomb relief sculptures also appeared on the walls of many lesser tombs, including those of nobles and middle-ranking officials.

These reliefs endeavoured to capture the essence of the deceased's earthly life, and their aspirations for the afterlife. Common themes included:

Famous examples of decorated tombs belonging to officials and lesser nobles, include:

Evolution of Reliefs

From the Old Kingdom to the New Kingdom, the sophistication, style, and thematic depth of tomb relief sculptures underwent considerable change.

While Old Kingdom tombs, like that of Ti, relied heavily on mundane imagery, the Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom (especially the latter) witnessed a surge in religious depictions, particularly the deceased's interactions with deities. This reflected the increasing value placed on piety over the period.

Back to top

Statues and Figurines

Ancient Egyptian statues served a wide variety of purposes:

Material and Technique

Egyptians employed a vast array of materials, ranging from stone (like limestone, granite, and basalt) for monumental statues, to wood, faience, and clay for smaller figurines.

The expensive, super-hard diorite was only used for special works.

Statues were often painted, and precious metals and gemstones were sometimes incorporated in the design, notably for the statues of deities and royalty.

Famous Statues and Figurines

Here is a brief chronological list of famous Ancient Egyptian statues and figurines.

For details of tomb figurines recovered from Sumer, in southern Mesopotamia, notably the treasures from the royal death pit at Ur, see: Sumerian Art (4000-2000 BC).

Back to top

Amulets

An amulet is a small good luck charm which is believed to confer good fortune or magical protection upon its wearer.

The term derives from the Latin word amuletum, meaning 'an object that protects a person from trouble'.

Amulets were made for the living as well as the dead.

The benefits of wearing an amulet varied according to the amulet's design and symbolism.

A lion amulet, for instance, was seen to confer extra strength; and a green or blue amulet was seen to confer life and regeneration; while a heart scarab was a special type of amulet designed to protect the heart of the deceased during the afterlife.

Amulets were carved from all sorts of materials, including faience (most popular), glass, and precious stones.

They depicted a variety of deities, shapes, notably animals, sacred objects, and hieroglyphs.

From the New Kingdom onward, deities – especially household deities such as Bes and Taweret – were popular subjects for amulets.

Funerary Masks

Ancient Egyptian sculptors and craftsmen also produced a range of religious masks for tombs, designed to be worn by the deceased.

A funerary mask was intended to help the deceased to transition to the afterlife. Masks were made from a variety of materials, including glass, plaster, gold, alabaster, and linen.

Famous funerary masks include:

Colossal Sculptures

Monumental sculptures, usually carved from hard stone like granite, limestone, or sandstone, primarily depicted deities, pharaohs, or a synthesis of both.

Their purpose was more than aesthetic; they served as symbols of the deity or king during rituals, or as symbols of pharaonic permanence and power.

Deities were often portrayed in anthropomorphic forms - human combined with animal elements - illustrating their diverse attributes.

Pharaohs were typically represented standing, seated on thrones, or in striding poses, often armed with the symbols of power – the was sceptre and ankh.

The massive scale of these works - sometimes dwarfing the temple pylons (gates) - was designed above all to awe and inspire.

These colossi evolved in style over the centuries. Old Kingdom sculptures, for instance, emphasized solidity and block-like forms, encapsulating the idea of eternal stillness.

The Middle Kingdom introduced a degree of naturalism, with a more expressive rendering of facial features.

In the New Kingdom, statues became grander and more dynamic, reflecting the empire's political might and religious fervor.

Famous examples include:

Back to top

Stelae

Ancient Egyptians frequently utilized upright stone slabs known as stelae (or stela), as symbols of commemoration, demarcation, religious devotion, and political assertion.

They were usually round-topped or rectangular in shape, made of either stone or wood, and varied in size from a few centimetres to more than eight metres in height.

They were typically inscribed with inscriptions, reliefs, and/or paintings.

Here is a short list of the most common types of stelae:

Funerary

Often placed in tombs, these commemorated the deceased, ensuring remembrance and offerings. They were also created to help the deceased in the afterlife.

For example, stela representing the deceased's nourishment during the afterlife became an important element of Egyptian funerary art.

One of the best preserved is the dietary Stele of Princess Nefertiabet (2566 BC), a princess during the reign of King Khufu, which depicts her food for the afterlife.

Votive

Votive stelae were dedicated to the gods. Usually given to temples and shrines by individuals to express their personal devotion, they were also incorporated into small altars built in private homes.

Boundary

Used to demarcate sacred spaces or territories, notably seen in the context of temples or regions. For example, Akhenaten's new capital at modern Amarna, in Middle Egypt, was bordered by fifteen stone boundary stelae, each containing the king's account of why he had chosen that site for his new religious centre.

Domestic

Stelae were also erected in houses as protection against dangerous animals such as snakes or scorpions.

Commemorative

This type was used mainly to commemorate military victories.

Examples include:

The Kamose stele celebrating the victory of the pharaoh Kamose over the Hyksos army in about 1570 BC.

The Merneptah Stele, also known as the Israel Stele or the Victory Stele of Merneptah, which marks the victorious campaigns of Merneptah (r.1213-1203 BC) in ancient Libya and Canaan.

The Victory Stela of King Piye (728 BC) which commemorates his victory over his rivals in Lower Egypt.

Socio-Political

This type is illustrated by the Restoration Stele of Tutankhamun (1337 BC), announcing the return to the traditional polytheistic system of religious worship in Egypt, after the Atenism of his father, Akhenaten.

Another example is the trilingual Rosetta Stone (196 BC), inscribed with a decree on behalf of King Ptolemy V. Of course, this granodiorite stele is more famous for its role in deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphs.

For a comparison with the Stele of Hammurabi (c.1750 BC), see Babylonian art for details.

Back to top

Faience, Egyptian Blue & Glass

Ancient Egypt was a pioneer producer of three related products: faience, Egyptian blue and glass.

Ancient Egyptian Faience

Faience, often mistaken for glazed pottery, is a non-clay-based ceramic, distinguished by its shimmering surface reminiscent of precious stones like turquoise or lapis lazuli.

While the term 'faience' is of European origin (relating to glazed ceramics from Faenza, Italy), its ancient Egyptian counterpart was known as 'tjehenet', meaning 'shining' or 'gleaming', capturing the material's lustrous appearance.

How Was Faience Made?

Answer: Egyptian faience comprises finely ground quartz or sand mixed with an alkaline binder like soda or lime. This mixture, once shaped into an object, was then fired in kilns, where it also underwent vitrification, causing the surface of the object to become a glassy, glazed layer.

As this shows, the Egyptian method of faience production was distinct from clay-based pottery as it required a single firing, during which the hardening and glazing occurred simultaneously.

Faience Glazes

The characteristic blue-green sheen of Egyptian faience is attributed to its copper-based glazes.

When the object was fired, the glaze materials would migrate to the surface, reacting with the alkaline ingredients to form a brilliant glassy layer.

While blue-green was the predominant hue, variations were achieved through different mineral additives, leading to a palette which included reds, yellows, and blues.

History of Faience Making

Egypt's interest in faience dates back to the early Predynastic period (c.4000 BC). Initially, it was used for beads and amulets.

By the time of the Old Kingdom (2686-2181 BC), its use broadened to include cylinder seals, scarabs, tiles, bowls, figurines, and inlays.

The New Kingdom (1550-1070 BC) witnessed the highpoint of faience craftsmanship, with the material used for intricate jewellery, tomb furnishings, and even architectural elements.

This growth is attributed to faience's symbolic associations with rebirth and regeneration. Its blue hue echoing the colour of the Nile and the heavens, both sacred elements in Egyptian cosmology.

Egyptian Blue

Ancient Egyptian Blue, commonly known as 'Egyptian Frit', is the earliest synthetic pigment.

Known scientifically as calcium copper silicate, it is a striking blue pigment, characterized by its rich, luminescent hue.

Its name in ancient Egyptian, 'hsbd-iryt', translates to 'artificial lapis lazuli', revealing its resemblance to the expensive gemstone.

How Was Egyptian Blue Made?

Answer: Egyptian Blue was made with a mixture of quartz sand, a copper compound (like malachite or azurite), an alkali (like natron), and a lime (often derived from limestone).

This mixture was then fired at around 900-1000 degrees Celsius, which facilitated the fusion of the materials and the formation of the distinctive blue crystals.

Once formed, the crystals were finely ground to produce the luminescent pigment.

What Objects Was it Used On?

Ancient Egyptian Glass

Glass was made in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia from around 3500 BC.

How Was Glass Made?

Answer: Glass-making in Ancient Egypt involved the core-formed technique. This required four basic ingredients: (a) silica from sand or quartz pebbles, combined with (b) a soda flux derived from either plant ash or mineral soda (natron), which reduced the melting temperature of the silica, and (c) lime as a stabiliser. Finally, (d) colourants, often derived from metallic oxides, were added for hues ranging from turquoise blue to deep purples.

After firing at high temperature, the molten mixture was then wound around a removable core (typically organic material, like clay or dung), shaped, and decorated while still malleable.

Afterwards, it was cooled, and the core was extracted, leaving behind a hollow object.

What Type of Glass Objects Were Made?

The initial surge in Ancient Egyptian glass-making occurred during the 18th Dynasty (1550-1292 BC).

Some Egyptologists believe the process was expedited by the capture of Levantine glass makers by Thutmose II (1479-1425 BC).

Progress continued under Amenhotep III (1400-1353), with the establishment of dedicated glass workshops in cities like Amarna.

By the 12th-century BC, Egypt had established itself as a major hub for glass production and innovation, influencing neighbouring civilizations like Mesopotamia, Babylonia and Assyria.

However, glass production declined during the era of Iron Age art, after the 21st Dynasty (1096-945 BC), and, though revived during the 26th Dynasty (664-525 BC), it continued on a much reduced scale.

After 30 BC, the Roman occupation of Egypt integrated Egyptian glass-making into the broader Roman glass industry, while Roman glass-blowing replaced the core formed technique.

Even so, Egyptian innovation and artistry was never overshadowed.

Architecture

Ancient Egyptian Architecture is world famous for the monumental Ancient Egyptian temples at Karnak, Luxor, Edfu, Abu Simbel, and elsewhere.

In addition, its stone pyramids in the Memphite necropolis - notably the Great Pyramid of Khufu at Giza - are extraordinary examples of megalithic architecture. For details, see the following articles:

References

(1) Arnold, Dieter (2003). The Encyclopaedia of Ancient Egyptian Architecture. London: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-86064-465-8.
(2) Blyth, Elizabeth (2006). Karnak: Evolution of a Temple. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-96837-6.
(3) Campbell, Price (2018). Ancient Egypt - Pocket Museum. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-51984-4.
(4) el-Shahawy, Abeer (2005). The Egyptian Museum in Cairo: A Walk Through the Alleys of Ancient Egypt. Farid Atiya Press. ISBN 977-17--2183-6.
(5) Robins, Gay (2008). The Art of Ancient Egypt. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03065-7.
(6) Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-815034-2.
(7) Smith, W. Stevenson; Simpson, William Kelly (1998). The Art and Architecture of Ancient Egypt. Penguin/Yale History of Art (3rd ed.). Yale University Press. ISBN 0300077475.
(8) Wilkinson, Toby (2008). Dictionary of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-20396-5.

Back to top

Home