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Ancient Egyptian Temples

Architecture, relief sculpture
History, famous temple buildings

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CONTENTS

Introduction

Ancient Egyptian civilization emerged along the Nile Valley, from Alexandria to Aswan, during the 4th millennium BC. It came about because of three factors:

One of the keynote achievements of this civilization was Ancient Egyptian architecture, enough of which has survived, to give us an insight into the creative and organizational strengths of this extraordinary Bronze Age culture, on the edge of the Sahara.

Temple architecture, for instance, was a particular strength. Egyptian temples were erected in order to worship both gods and pharaohs. They were considered to be residences for the gods to whom they were dedicated.

Inside these sacred places - which include some of the greatest examples of megalithic architecture in history - priests and priestesses conducted a variety of religious ceremonies and rituals.

They made offerings to the gods, reenacted their mythological roles through annual festivals, and thus protected society from the forces of evil.

Hosting these rituals was essential for the gods to maintain the divine order of the universe - an order known by the Egyptian term 'maat', which involved a combination of truth, order, harmony, law, morality, and justice.

The obligation to house and care for the gods rested with the pharaohs, the kings of Ancient Egypt, who devoted enormous resources to temple building and maintenance.

In practice, pharaohs delegated most of these duties to their high priests. Indeed, the general public was often excluded from direct participation in ceremonies, or access to a temple's innermost chambers.

Even so, a temple's public areas were important spaces for all classes of Egyptians, who went there to pray, make votive offerings, and solicit oracular guidance from the god in residence.

The most sacred area of the temple was the inner sanctuary, which usually housed a statue of its cult god. Most cults required the daily worship of an 'image' of the deity. Thus, for example, the shrine containing the image would be opened at dawn, and the image purified, praised and tended.

Over time, the outer rooms of the temple grew larger and more extensive. Temples grew from small shrines in Neolithic Egypt (4000 BC) to large stone complexes in the New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC), and after.

These complexes feature the most spectacular religious architecture in ancient Egypt, while their constituent parts were configured and embellished according to Egyptian religious symbolism.

Temple layouts typically included a sequence of enclosed halls, open courtyards, and entrance gates aligned along a set thoroughfare which was used for festival processions. Beyond the temple gates was an outer wall which enclosed a mixture of lesser shrines, tombs and other buildings.

A major Egyptian temple also owned considerable amounts of land and employed thousands of workers. It was therefore an important economic centre well as a place of worship.

he high priests who directed these religious institutions would have had immense influence, sufficient even to rival that of their boss, the pharaoh.

Temple-building in Ancient Egypt continued despite the state's decline and ultimate takeover by the Romans in 30 BC.

But with the advent of Christianity, traditional Egyptian priests and cults suffered increasing persecution. As a result, most temple cults died out by around 500 AD.

Thereafter, most temples fell into ruin. Those that survived were renovated mostly during the 20th century, which enables us to appreciate some of the greatest ancient art of the Mediterranean Bronze Age.

In a nutshell, Egyptian temples served as both religious sanctuaries and centres of socio-political activity, and played a pivotal role in shaping the civilization of Ancient Egypt.

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History of Egyptian Temples

The history of temple-building in Ancient Egypt begins during the final phase of Neolithic culture, in the Pre-dynastic era (5000-3150 BC).

Before the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt into a single kingdom, the land was dotted with settlements, each having its own distinct cult god, or deity, and place of worship.

The earliest temples during the Pre-dynastic period were mainly open-air shrines - like those at sites such as Saïs and Buto in Lower Egypt and Nekhen and Coptos in Upper Egypt - in which sacred spaces were distinguished with posts, or stone markers, to accommodate the worship of a deity.

They were simple structures of mud, reeds and palm leaves, none of which have survived.

Temples made out of stone didn't appear until the 4th dynasty (2613-2494 BC) and are almost always associated with pharaonic pyramids. They served as mortuary temples connected with the funerary cult of the deceased pharaoh.

A fascinating development from this era is the ritualistic burials of significant artifacts, ancient pottery and even boats near these shrines.

Early Dynastic Era: 3150-2686

The unification of Egypt under the rule of King Menes (or Narmer) in 3150 BC, marked the beginning of the Dynastic period. This centralization resulted in a consolidation of religious practices, with temples growing in size and complexity.

The first pharaohs built mortuary complexes at Abydos following a single general pattern, with a rectangular mudbrick enclosure. But while the temple designs were still predominantly simple, stone gradually began to be used more widely, signalling a shift towards more permanent structures.

Temples from this era, like the one at Hierakonpolis dedicated to the falcon god Horus, displayed notable advances in architectural planning. In addition to a central shrine, there were subsidiary structures and defined pathways, revealing a more intricate ritual process.

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Old Kingdom: 2686-2181 BC

The Old Kingdom, known as the 'Age of the Pyramids,' was the high point of pyramid construction. The most famous examples, in chronological order, include:

Although Ancient Egyptian pyramids are basically just large tombs, the complex around them contained a number of cult temples.

Expansion began under the pharaoh Djoser, who built his funerary complex entirely of stone, and grouped it around a step pyramid under which he was interred: the Pyramid of Djoser.

This marriage of tomb and temple set the trend for the remainder of the Old Kingdom.

This new form of religious architecture also had valuable social benefits.

Because in order to service and supply the pyramid/temple complexes, the pharaohs set up new towns and farming estates (or expanded existing ones) across Egypt.

The crafts and jobs thus created, helped to unify the country and boosted tax revenues.

The most popular religious cults (god-myths) were those bound up with royalty.

The sun temples, dedicated to the sun god Ra, are illustrative of this trend. Being closely associated with the pharaoh, the sun god Ra, received more royal offerings than other deities.

Ra's temple at Heliopolis, for instance, became a major religious centre, as did the Sun Temple of Userkaf at Abu Ghurab, characterized by a large obelisk symbolizing the sun's rays.

In addition, several Old Kingdom pharaohs built large sun temples in his honour close to their pyramids.

Another popular cult was that of Osiris, his wife Isis and son Horus. The centuries-old tomb of the First Dynasty ruler Djer, near Osiris's main centre of worship at Abydos, was regarded as Osiris's tomb.

Note that temples during the Old Kingdom were not just religious centres, but also social and economic hubs.

Pharaohs were revered as living embodiments of gods, and used temples to reinforce their divine status and consolidate power.

By erecting monumental structures, they showcased not only their piety, but also their kingdom's prosperity and might.

At the same time, many small provincial temples continued to operate and retained a variety of local styles from the Predynastic era, unaffected by the large royal cult sites.

The rare remains from Middle Kingdom temples, like the one at Medinet Madi, show that temple plans grew more symmetrical during that period, and divine temples made increasing use of stone.

The pattern of a sanctuary lying behind a pillared hall, frequently appears in Middle Kingdom temples, and sometimes these two elements are fronted by open courts, foreshadowing the standard temple layout used in later times.

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Middle Kingdom: 2030-1650 BC

The Middle Kingdom era in Ancient Egypt is frequently referred to as the 'Period of Reunification' after a century of political strife.

Following the collapse of the Old Kingdom, there was an urgent need to reaffirm the centrality of divine kingship. As the Pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom re-established centralized control, temples became significant symbols of royal power, which was intertwined with divine legitimacy.

Architecturally, Middle Kingdom temples maintained several foundational designs of the Old Kingdom but with noticeable improvements.

Stone, primarily limestone and sandstone, continued to be the predominant material, but there was an added emphasis on durability, perhaps stemming from a desire for permanence amidst the still fresh memories of political instability.

Another change was the introduction of a new temple layout. This standardized format typically featured an entrance gate (pylon), a courtyard, a room filled with columns (a hypostyle hall), and a sanctuary.

The courtyard was often flanked by columns and led to the inner chambers of the temple.

Examples of Middle Kingdom temple architecture include:

Temples of the Middle Kingdom not only served as sites of worship but were also centers of learning, economic activity, and cultural events.

In addition, temples were built in provincial regions, away from the traditional urban centres, which demonstrated an intent to integrate the more distant areas of the kingdom.

An essential religious theme of this period was the emphasis on personal piety. While state-sponsored temple constructions proliferated, there was a concurrent rise in personal stela, which people placed in temple precincts.

These stela often had inscriptions praying to gods, showcasing an individual's devotion.

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New Kingdom: 1550-1069 BC

The New Kingdom saw Egyptian imperial ambitions reaching as far as modern-day Syria to the north and Nubia to the south.

This expansion had a direct impact on temple architecture, as the Pharaohs of the New Kingdom sought to immortalize their conquests, divine authority, and the state's might through colossal and intricate temple complexes.

The most important god of the time was Amun, whose main cult center, the Precinct of Amun-Ra at Karnak in Thebes, eventually became the largest of all temples, and its high priests wielded considerable political influence.

Architectural Pinnacles:

The New Kingdom temples, beyond their architectural marvel, were focal points of socio-religious life. The annual Opet Festival in Thebes, which saw the statues of the Theban triad being paraded from Karnak to Luxor, symbolized the rejuvenation of the king's divine powers.

There was also a noticeable rise in the prominence of the priesthood, especially those of Amun at Karnak. The vast temple estates, agrarian resources, and control over temple revenues gave the priests formidable influence in politics and society.

Akhenaten's Religious Revolution

In the middle of the New Kingdom, Pharaoh Akhenaten (r.1353–1336 BC) (formerly Amenhotep IV) promoted the god Aten over all others, and eventually abolished the official worship of most other gods.

As a result, traditional temples saw a huge drop in royal patronage, and a new capital, Akhetaten (modern-day Amarna), was established.

The temples dedicated to Aten were starkly different – open-air structures without the traditional sanctums.

However, following Akhenaten's death, there was a restoration of the Amun cult. The new temples dismantled, and traditional temple-building resumed under Tutankhamun.

New Kingdom: Decline & Collapse

Subsequent pharaohs dedicated still more resources to the temples. Ramesses II (r.1279–1213 BC), for example, became the most prolific temple-builder in Egyptian history.

With more temples, the power of high priests grew further, and so did their socio-political clout. Temple oracles, for example, (in effect, declarations by the priests), became an increasingly popular method of making decisions.

In the eleventh century BC, coinciding with a decline in pharaonic power, a military leader Herihor made himself High Priest of Amun at Thebes, and the de facto ruler of Upper Egypt, during the reign of Pharaoh Ramesses XI. This led to the political fragmentation of the Third Intermediate Period (1070–664 BC).

With the collapse of the New Kingdom, the building of mortuary temples ceased, never to be revived.

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8 Famous Temples

Here are eight of the most celebrated temples of Ancient Egypt.

Karnak Temple Complex

Located on the east bank of the River Nile just north of Luxor, the Karnak complex comprises four main sections: (1) the Precinct of Amon-Re; (2) the Precinct of Montu; (3) the Precinct of Mut; and (4) the Temple of Amenhotep IV; plus a few smaller temples. In total it covers an astonishing 200 acres.

Why is Karnak temple so big? Because it was developed over 1,600 years (1970-305 BC), a much longer period of time than other monumental structures, and involved more than 30 Pharaohs.

The complex's most striking feature is the Great Hypostyle Hall in the Precinct of Amon-Re, erected by Ramesses I.

This hall contained 134 colossal columns arranged in 16 rows. Of these 122 are over 9 metres tall; the remaining 12 are 20 metres tall, and some exceed 3.5 metres in diameter.

These colossal columns were constructed from sandstone megaliths and are adorned with megalithic art, including hieroglyphics and reliefs.

Another highlight is the corridor of ram-headed sphinxes leading up to the entrance of the complex.

The temple complex is dedicated to the Theban Triad of deities, consisting of Amun-Ra, Mut, and Khonsu. Amun-Ra, the chief god of the Egyptian pantheon, was particularly venerated at Karnak, where he was believed to reside.

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Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut

The Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut, situated on the west bank of the Nile in Luxor, was constructed during the reign of Queen Hatshepsut, around 1479-1458 BC.

The temple's design and architecture - unique for the time - consisted of three terraced levels blending into the natural rock formation.

The temple is about 30 metres tall and was mainly built out of limestone. It was dedicated to the sun god Amun-Ra, as well as to Hatshepsut herself, who ruled as a female pharaoh during the 18th Dynasty of ancient Egypt.

The temple was intended as a mortuary complex to honour Hatshepsut's reign and to serve as her final resting place. Statues, reliefs, and inscriptions adorned the structure, narrating her achievements and divine lineage.

Luxor Temple

Luxor Temple, located on the east bank of the Nile River in modern-day Luxor, was begun during the reign of Amenhotep II around 1400 BC. Building work at the site continued as late as the Ptolemy Kingdom (305 BC).

Additional pillars, columns, temples, statues, and friezes of relief sculpture were contributed by the architects of King Horemheb and Tutankhamun, while Akhenaten added a shrine to Aten.

But the biggest expansion occurred under Ramesses II, a century later.

Originally, the main entrance to the complex was marked by a massive 24-metre high gateway guarded by six massive statues of Ramesses – four seated, two standing. Sadly, only two seated statues remain.

Behind the pylon lies a spacious courtyard surrounded by colonnades with towering columns, creating a sense of grandeur and splendour.

The columns are made out of sandstone, and their elaborate carvings depict scenes from religious rituals and pharaonic triumphs. The Temple was dedicated to the Theban Triad of deities: Amun-Ra, his consort Mut, and their son Khonsu.

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Temple of Seti I at Abydos

The Mortuary Temple of Seti I, is found at Abydos on the west bank of the Nile. It was built around 1290-1279 BC.

The purpose of the temple was to honour the god Osiris and to serve as a mortuary complex for Seti I, commemorating his divine kingship and his transition to the afterlife.

Seti I was also responsible for the Great Hypostyle Hall at Karnak, as well as his own beautiful tomb in the Valley of the Kings. However, he died before completing his Abydos monument. (It was finished by his son Ramesses II).

The temple has an untypical L-shaped layout and was constructed using limestone, with sandstone in parts.

The entrance courtyards were decorated by Ramesses II with scenes from the battle of Kadesh, and those of Seti making offerings to the gods.

The first hypostyle hall contains twelve pairs of sandstone columns. The second hypostyle hall has thirty-six similar pillars, and is decorated with scenes of Seti I prostrate before the gods.

The second hall leads to seven chapels each dedicated to a different god, namely: the god-king Seti I, Ptah, Ra-Horakhty, Amun-Ra, Osiris, Isis, and Horus.

The chapels are decorated with more imagery of Seti worshipping the gods and of him receiving the symbols of life and dominion.

The Osiris chapel leads ultimately to a secret chamber that could only be accessed by the highest priests, because it was here that the mysteries of Osiris were celebrated.

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Twin Temples of Abu Simbel

These monumental temples are situated in southern Egypt near the border with Sudan, and were constructed during the reign of Pharaoh Ramesses II, around 1264-1244 BC.

They were hewn out of the sandstone cliffs and are dedicated to different gods. The larger temple is dedicated to the sun god Ra-Horakhty, Amun-Ra, and Ptah, while the smaller temple is dedicated to Ramesses II himself, and his beloved wife, Queen Nefertari.

The entrance to the larger temple is flanked by colossal statues of Ramesses II, standing about 20 metres in height.

The two temples were built to show off the divine power of Ramesses II and to commemorate his victory at the Battle of Kadesh.

Due to natural and human-induced factors, the temples faced the threat of submersion by the rising waters of Lake Nasser. In a remarkable feat of engineering, they were relocated during the 1960s, to higher ground, thus preserving them for future generations.

Medinet Habu Temple Complex

This temple complex, which is dedicated to Pharaoh Ramses III (r.1187-1156 BC) of the 20th Dynasty, is located on the west bank of the Nile, near Luxor.

It consists of several buildings within an enclosure, including the main temple, chapels, courtyards, and administrative buildings.

The temple complex dates back to the 12th century BC and is built mainly from sandstone.

The complex, which served as a mortuary temple for Ramses III, is dedicated is the god Amun-Ra, symbolizing kingship and the sun.

The temple's elaborate carvings and inscriptions depict scenes of royal rituals, military victories, and offerings to the gods.

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Temple of Edfu

This is a well-preserved ancient Egyptian temple that was started during the reign of Ptolemy III in 237 BC and completed in 57 BC under Ptolemy XII.

It was one of several temples built during the Ptolemaic Kingdom, such as the Dendera Temple complex, Esna, and the Temple of Kom Ombo.

Made from sandstone, the temple is dedicated to the falcon-headed god Horus (and his wife Hathor of Dendera), son of Osiris and Isis, two of the most significant deities in ancient Egyptian mythology. It's the largest temple dedicated to Horus and Hathor.

The temple complex includes a monumental entrance gate - 36 metres in height by 80 metres in width - a pillared hall, a spacious courtyard, various halls, and a barque sanctuary surrounded by chapels, much of it adorned with detailed carvings and hieroglyphics.

Its mural inscriptions contain valuable information on language, myth and religion during the Hellenistic period in Egypt.

Temple of Kom Ombo

Located in the agricultural town of Kom Ombo in Upper Egypt, near Aswan, this unique double temple dates back to the Ptolemaic period (180-47 BC), but was later expanded during the Roman era.

The temple rises to a height of 15 metres and is built primarily from limestone and sandstone.

It is dedicated to two deities: the northern half of the temple is dedicated to the falcon-headed god Horus, associated with the morning sun, while the southern half is dedicated to the crocodile god Sobek, symbolizing fertility and protection.

This dual dedication is reflected in the temple's distinctive layout, featuring two separate sections and duplicated halls, courts, and sanctuaries. It has also led to the temple being nicknamed the 'House of the Crocodile' and the 'Castle of the Falcon'.

NEXT: See Archaeology: Prehistoric and Ancient.

References

(1) Arnold, Dieter (2003). The Encyclopaedia of Ancient Egyptian Architecture. London: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-86064-465-8.
(2) Arnold, Dieter (2005a). "The Temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahri". In Roehrig, Catharine (ed.). Hatshepsut From Queen to Pharaoh. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 135–140. ISBN 1-58839-173-6.
(3) Bell, Lanny, "Luxor Temple and the Cult of the Royal Ka," Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 44, no. 4 (1985): 251.
(4) Blyth, Elizabeth (2006). Karnak: Evolution of a Temple. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-96837-6.
Brand, Peter J. The Monuments of Seti I. Leiden; Boston; Köln: Brill, 155-173.
(5) Breasted, James Henry. The Excavation of Medinet Habu. Volume 1 General Plans and Views. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1934.
(6) Kurth, Dieter. The Temple of Edfu. 2004. American University in Cairo Press. ISBN 977 424 764 7.
(7) Dijkstra, Jitse H. F. (2008). Philae and the End of Ancient Egyptian Religion. Peeters. ISBN 978-90-429-2031-6.
(8) Verner, Miroslav. Temple of the Word: Sanctuaries, Cults and Mysteries of Ancient Egypt. (Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 2013).

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