Mesolithic Art & Culture

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CONTENTS

• What is the Mesolithic?
• When did the Mesolithic Begin and End?
• What Happened During the Mesolithic?
• Environmental Changes
• Mesolithic Culture
• Mesolithic Art
• Famous Mesolithic Rock Art
• Sculpture
• Pottery
• Megalithic Architecture & Art
• References

What is the Mesolithic?

The term 'Mesolithic' refers to a transitional phase between the mobile hunter-gatherer culture of the Paleolithic and the settled farming lifestyle of the Neolithic.

Both lifestyles were greatly influenced by climate and environment, so the time needed to transition from one to the other varied region by region.

In some areas, like Iraq and Australia, there was no Mesolithic period at all - Iraq, because agriculture began very early (c.10,000 BC); Australia, because it remained a hunter-gatherer culture until the 18th century.

But in other areas the Mesolithic lasted for more than 5,000 years.

To confuse matters further, the term Mesolithic only applies to Eurasia. Elsewhere, the period is known as the Epipaleolithic.

Origins

The term 'mesolithic' comes from the greek 'mesos' (middle), and 'lithos' (stone), and was first used in 1872 by the Irish archaeologist Hodder Westropp (1820–85).

For the earliest artworks, see: Oldest Art in the World.

When did the Mesolithic Begin and End?

The Mesolithic Age begins at the end of the Magdalenian era, the final phase of Stone Age culture, about 10,000 BC. However, its duration varies region-by region.

Approximate dates of the Mesolithic are as follows:

• Iraq: No Mesolithic
• Turkey: 10,000- 9,500 BC
• China: 10,000-9,500 BC
• Egypt: 10,000-8,000 BC
• N. Africa: 10,000-7,500 BC
• India: 10,000-7,000 BC
• New Guinea: 10,000-7,000 BC
• SE Europe: 10,000-7,000 BC
• W Europe: 10,000-5,800 BC
• N. America: 10,000-4,500 BC
• Mexico: 10,000-3,000 BC
• S. America: 10,000-3,000 BC
• S. Africa: 10,000-3,000 BC
• Australia: No Mesolithic

For more about the chronology of the Stone Age, see: Prehistoric Art Timeline (from 540,000 BC).

What Happened During the Mesolithic?

The Mesolithic (Epipaleolithic) was one of the most unpredictable periods of prehistory.

This stemmed from the climate warming which occurred at the end of the Ice Age, around 12,000 BC.

As Europe warmed, its hunter-gatherer environment became increasingly unpredictable, as ecosystems responded to rising temperatures.

Reindeer (the staple meat of the late Upper Paleolithic) slowly began to disappear northwards, the landscape gradually evolved from bare tundra to woodland and forest, and each species - human and animal - was forced to deal with new predator-prey relationships.

Environmental Changes

• Sea Levels
  In northern regions, isostatic rising of the land was opposed by a larger eustatic rise in sea levels. This led to the inundation of postglacial coastlines, and the loss of large areas of hunting territory in Scandinavia. In addition, around 6,500 BC, it cut off Britain from the Continent.
• Flora
  On land, there was a transition from bare tundra landscapes to a mixed forested type of landscape with species like oak, lime, and elm, replacing the wintry birch, aspen, willow, and juniper. In southern France and the Iberian Peninsula, oak-dominated woodland proliferated across the lowlands, while pine dominated higher levels.
• Fauna
  These environmental changes led to the extinction of several species of megafauna, including the mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, and megaloceros. In addition, the retreating ice sheets drew reindeer and elk into the Arctic. The loss of summer pastures led to the large herds of megafauna (bison, horses) being replaced by a new set of small, less migratory herbivores, such as wild pig, red deer, elk, and wild cattle. Smaller animals - like badgers, otters, pine martens (like stoats) and rabbits - were also hunted (snared) for their fur as well as their meat.
• Aquatic Resources
  Mesolithic hunter gatherers also exploited a wide range of shellfish (crab, scallops, mussels, prawns, oysters, limpets, and periwinkles) and salt-water fish, as well as freshwater fish like pike, eels, tench, perch, and bream. Note that some of these aquatic resources would have been available only at set times of the year.
• Uneven Spread of Resources
  But food resources were not evenly distributed. Interior regions, for instance, were less well off foodwise, than coastal areas or those rich in rivers and lakes. As a result, the more permanent Mesolithic settlements tended to be located near the coast or inland waters, where food supplies were more reliable.

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Mesolithic Culture

• Stone Tools
  In general, the Mesolithic toolkit reflected a decline in the group hunting of megafauna in favour of a more flexible hunter-gatherer approach, which targeted a wider range of smaller game animals. This required the development of smaller, more sophisticated tools and weapons.
• The use of flint was augmented by new types of stone, like quartzites, slates, and gneiss, although stone quality suffered as Mesolithic foragers reduced their range compared to their forbears. But in general, flint-knapping skills were maintained, notably in blade tools with razor-sharp edges.
• Microliths
  Retouched microliths (small Mode 5 tools, typically 1 cm or more long, and 0.5 cm wide) - used as projectile points and barbed edges for arrows, darts and javelins - also proliferated during the Mesolithic, and their evolution from obliquely blunted points to geometric shapes led to the identification of the French culture known as the Azilian, after the type-site of Mas d'Azil Cave in the Pyrenees; and three Scandinavian cultures: the Maglemose (7,500-5,600 BC), the Kongemose (5,600-4,500 BC), and the Ertebølle (4,500-3,200 BC). Other Mesolithic stone tools included flint axes, adzes, and hoes clearing and working the land.
• Antler, Bone, Wood Tools
  Magdalenian traditions concerning the use of tools (like scrapers, mattocks) made out of antler, bone and wood, were continued and developed further. See also: History of Stone Tools.
• Settlements
  The Mesolithic gave rise to a wide variety of settlements and camps, ranging from small temporary campsites to large complexes which were occupied all year round. An example of a permanent site complex is Ertebølle in Danish Jutland, the type-site of the Ertebølle culture.
• Hunting
  Hunting wild game remained paramount. Mesolithic hunters mastered bow and arrow technologies, added leister fishing spears to their toolkit, and were the first to develop the use of hunting dogs, some of whom received a formal burial when they died.
• Burial Culture
  The first cemeteries in Europe appeared during the Mesolithic Age. Although people had been buried (with varying degrees of formality) throughout the Upper Paleolithic, it wasn't until the late Mesolithic that we see the appearance of formal burial grounds, with up to several hundred graves. That said, even though some of these graves revealed the emergence of a ruling elite (or class) - in contrast to the egalitarian culture of the Upper Paleolithic - burials remained fairly simple. Grandiose burials would be the mark of the Neolithic.

Mesolithic Art

Rock Painting & Engraving

• Food insecurity undermined the cave painting and engraving traditions of the Upper Paleolithic. Whereas before, most art was created in deep, unoccupied cave sanctuaries, Mesolithic artists tend to decorate shallow residential caves.
• In addition, because of the warmer climate, artists also move outside and begin decorating outdoor rock faces - typically cliff faces sheltered from the elements by overhanging rock. This type of outdoor rock art has been found in numerous locations across eastern Spain, Africa, Asia, Australasia and the Americas.
• Subject matter also changes. While Upper Paleolithic art mainly depicts animals (and a tiny number of human figures) Mesolithic artists focus on humans. Typically, figures are shown in hunting or dancing scenes, or engaged in everyday activities.
• Painting becomes less naturalistic and more stylized. Human figures often resemble matchstick men. This is seen also in Australia, where rock art continued to develop even though the country retained its hunter-gatherer culture until colonization.
• Feathers and reeds become popular as painting implements.

Famous Mesolithic Rock Art

• Rock art of the Iberian Mediterranean Basin
  From 8,000 BC
  Eastern Spain
  A UNESCO World Heritage Site which includes over 700 individual sites, such as the Caves of El Cogul in Catalonia, and the Caves of Araña near Valencia. Overall, noted for its prehistoric paintings and shallow engravings of small human figures. These are shown hunting as well as occupied in more mundane tasks like collecting honey. Animals are also depicted and much more besides. Spans the Mesolithic and Neolithic from 8,000 to 3,500 BC.
• Ubirr Rock Art
  From 6,000 BC
  Arnhem Land, Australia
  Ubirr is a major centre of Aboriginal rock art, whose most distinctive paintings are the animated stick figures of the 'Dynamic Figure' tradition, which are often dressed in elaborate costume, in both hunting and domestic scenes.
• Bhimbetka Rock Paintings
  From 9,000 BC
  Madhya Pradesh, India
  A UNESCO World Heritage Site which includes 750 rock shelters. Noted for its small scale stylised figures with linear body decoration shown hunting with bows and arrows, barbed spears and sharpened sticks.
• Pachmarhi Hills Rock Art
  9,000 BC
  Madhya Pradesh, India
  Paintings and engravings. Subjects include animals, like bison, bulls, elephants, wild boars, deer, tigers, buffalo, dogs, monkeys, lizards, turtles, scorpions, wild bees, and much more. Matchstick hunters are depicted with spears, axes, sticks and bows and arrows.
• Tadrart Acacus Paintings
  From 12,000 BC
  Libya (near Tassili n'Ajjer)
  Thousands of cave paintings and carvings. Subjects include giraffes, elephants, ostriches and camels and horses. Humans are depicted hunting, making music and dancing.
• Wonderwerk Cave Paintings
  From 8,200 BC
  Northern Cape, South Africa
  World famous site inhabited by humans since 2 million BC. Contains a wealth of artifacts as well as figurative paintings, engravings and abstract symbols. Wide array of animals and humans. A UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• Tassili-n-Ajjer Rock Art
  From 8,000 BC
  SE Algeria
  A UNESCO World Heritage Site with 15,000 drawings and engravings. Subjects include animals and humans. The site spans the Neolithic as well as the Mesolithic periods.
• San Bushman Rock Art
  From 8,000 BC
  Drakensberg, Tsodilo Hills, Twyfelfontein, South Africa
  Paintings and carvings by the indigenous San people in South Africa, Lesotho, and Botswana. Subjects include non-human beings, hunters, and half-human half-animal figures.
• Cueva de las Manos
  From 7,300 BC
  Patagonia, Argentina
  A UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Cave of Hands is famous for its huge collection of some 2,000 hand stencils and handprints. Represents the oldest art in South America. Other Mesolithic hand paintings can be seen at Gua Ham Masri II Cave (8,000 BC) in Indonesia.

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Sculpture

Prehistoric sculpture was also continued during the Mesolithic Age, although most freestanding works made out of wood or bone, have likely been lost. What's more, the tradition of venus figurines had already ended during the Magdalenian.

• Shigir Idol
  10,000-9,500 BC
  Yekaterinburg, Russia
  The world's oldest wooden sculpture. This thin 2.8 metre statue carved out of larch wood, is on display in the Sverdlovsk Regional Museum in Yekaterinburg.
• Ain Sakhri Lovers
  9,000 BC
  Ain Sakhri Caves, Bethlehem
  Famous Natufian sculpture, depicting an embracing couple, made from a single stone cobble, now in the British Museum, London.
• Elk's Head of Huittinen
  7,000-6,000 BC
  Satakunta, Finland
  This Mesolithic sculpture - probably the best-known prehistoric artifact in Finland - is a 10 cm soapstone carving of a moose head (sic) which is held in the permanent collection of the Finnish National Museum in Helsinki.
• Fish God Sculpture of Lepenski Vir
  7,000 BC
  Lepenski Vir, Serbia
  Lepenski Vir (Lepena Whirlpool) is an important archaeological site associated with the Balkan Iron Gates culture, located on the banks of the Danube. Noted for numerous quartz sandstone sculptures with wide fish-like mouths. The two most famous carvings are known as 'Praroditeljka' (foremother) and 'Rodonacelnik' (family founder). They are now in the National Museum, Belgrade.

Pottery

During the late Mesolithic, as settlements in Europe began to expand, so did demand for earthenware pottery, although its route into Europe is rather murky.

Pottery originated in China around 18,000 BC (Xianren Cave and Yuchanyan Cave) and is believed to have found its way overland into Western Asia (Iran), where it arrived no later than 8,000 BC.

Ancient Chinese pottery spread into Japan, and Russia and eventually into Europe - either through the Middle East and along the Danube river into southern and central Europe, or along the Volga to the Baltic and then to Ertebølle in Denmark.

Note however, that pottery dating to 15,500 BC was discovered at Vela Spila cave on Korcula Island, off the coast of Croatia. This suggests that pottery was invented in several different places - a suggestion supported by the discovery of pottery remains dating to 9,400 BC in central Mali, in the SW Sahara region of Africa.

At any rate, despite pottery having been created since 18,000 BC, it only became a universal product during the Neolithic, with the invention of kilns and, later, the Potter's Wheel.

Megalithic Architecture & Art

Long before the Mesolithic Age ended in Western Europe (5,800 BC), hunter-gatherer bands in Turkey built a series of monumental structures at Göbekli Tepe (founded 9,500 BC; abandoned 8,000 BC); Nevalı Çori (founded 8,400 BC; abandoned 8,100 BC); and Çatalhöyük (founded 7,100 BC; abandoned 5,700 BC).

These sites are famous for having some of the world's oldest known temples, monumental sculpture and other cultural items.

However, because Turkey's Mesolithic Age ended before these sites were built, they are classified as Neolithic, and thus fall outside the scope of this article.

References

(1) The Oxford Illustrated History of Prehistoric Europe (1994) Ed. Barry Cunliffe. ISBN 0-19-285441-0
(2) Beltrán Martínez, Antonio, "Rock Art of the Spanish Levant" 1982, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-24568-0
(3) Gronenborn, Detlef (2007). "Beyond the models: Neolithisation in Central Europe". Proceedings of the British Academy. 144: 73–98
(4) "The Diversity of Hunter Gatherer Pasts" Bill Finlayson (Editor) Oxbow Books. ISBN: 9781785705885